Sexual Preference, Gender, and Blame Essays - Rape, Sexual Abuse

The Journal of Social Psychology, 2011, 151(5), 592607 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Sexual Preference, Gender, and Blame Attributions in Adolescent Sexual Assault MICHELLE DAVIES KERRY AUSTEN PAUL ROGERS University of Central Lancashire ABSTRACT. The study investigated the impact of victim sexual orientation, perpetrator gender, and participant gender on judgements toward a 15-year-old male victim of a depicted sexual assault. One hundred and eight-eight participants (97 male, 91 female) read a hypothetical scenario depicting the sexual assault of a 15-year-old male victim where the victims sexual orientation and the perpetrators gender were varied between subjects. Participants then completed a questionnaire assessing their attributions toward both the victim and the perpetrator. Results revealed that male participants blamed the victim more than female participants when the victim was both gay and attacked by a male perpetrator. All participants, regardless of gender, made more positive judgements toward the female as opposed to male perpetrator. Results are discussed in relation to gender role stereotypes and homophobia. Keywords: gender, homosexuality, sexual assault, sexual preference CHILDREN OF BOTH GENDERS ARE AFFECTED by child sexual abuse (CSA). Fergusson and Mullen (1999) reviewed studies over a period of 20 years and found CSA prevalence rates ranging from 3% to 30% for males and 6% to 62% for females, depending on the definition and type of measure used (see also Bolen, Russell & Scannapieco, 2000). In Britain, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) estimated that around 1.1 million of British girls (21%) and half-a- million British boys (17%) have experienced some form of sexual abuse with around 16% of girls and 7% of boys being victims of contact CSA (that is, CSA where there is direct physical contact between victim and perpetrator, rather than non-contact CSA, which does not involve direct contact, such as forcing a child to watch pornography; Cawson, Wattam, Brooker Nurse, 2006; see Bacon, 2008). Address correspondence to Michelle Davies, University of Central Lancashire, School of Psychology, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, UK; [emailprotected] (e-mail). 592 Davies, Austen, & Rogers 593 More sample-specific rates of the lifetime prevalence of sexual abuse on males have been investigated among gay and bisexual men who had been sexually assaulted both as children and adults. Hickson, Davies, Hunt, Weatherburn, McManus and Coxon (1994) investigated rates of non-consensual sexual activity among 930 gay and bisexual males, living in England and Wales. Of these, 257 (27.6%) had been subjected to non-consensual sexual activity at some point in their lives. In this study 10 of the cases stated the perpetrator was female. Gay and bisexual youths appear to be victimized physically and sexually during childhood and adolescence more so than heterosexual youths (Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, 1994; see Davies, 2002, for a review of other prevalence studies in relation to male sexual assault). Victims of sexual assaults are sometimes considered partly responsible for their abuse. Howard (1984) found that male victims of (adult) sexual assault were blamed more for their own abuse than were their female counterparts. Moreover, this blaming stemmed from observers negative perceptions of males victims behavior (e.g. looking scared, failing to fight back or escape) during and/or immediately after their ordeal. Such failures to protect oneself during a (sexual) confrontation violate the gender stereotype that men are strong and in control (Thompson & Pleck, 1986) and subsequently increases the amount of responsibility attributed to victims for their own (sexual) assault (Howard, 1984). Perceptions of adult male sexual assault victims also differ in terms of observers endorsement of negative attitudes toward homosexuality. Anderson (2004), for instance, found that expressing high levels of homophobia predicted negative perceptions on male rape victims, more so amongst male than female participants. Additionally, Davies and McCartney (2003) found that whilst heterosexual men blame male rape victims, gay men do not. This gives further support to the notion that holding negative attitudes toward gay men will contribute to the blaming male of sexual assault victims. Finally, several studies have shown that male victims portrayed as gay are blamed more than those portrayed as heterosexual (Burt Davies, Pollard & Archer, 2001, Davies, Pollard Davies, Rogers Davies Ford, Liwag-McLamb Mitchell, Hirschman & Nagayama-Hall, 1999; Wakelin see Davies & Rogers, 2006, for a review), adding further support for the homophobia hypothesis. Another factor to influence attributions toward male sexual assault victims is perpetrator gender. Smith, Pine and Hawley (1988), showed that adult male victims (whose sexual orientation was not specified) were more negatively evaluated when assaulted by a femalerather than maleperpetrator. Davies and colleagues (2006) furthered Smith and colleagues work

Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Example

Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Example Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay It is important to maintain good hygiene in order to care for your own personal appearance and eliminate body odours which might offend others/embarrass yourself. Personal hygiene refers to cleaning and grooming the body. Personal hygiene is an important way of protecting the body again diseases and infections. Good hygiene promotes self esteem and general well-being. Poor hygiene is known to be ill received by general public. Poor hygiene is known effect people’s health and can lead to health problems as well as appearance.The failure to maintain good personal hygiene can result in illness of different kinds such as the breakdown of skin, ulcers and boils. Poor oral hygiene can lead to heart disease and plaque causing build up in the arteries. Poor hand washing can lead to spread of infectious disease such as salmonella infection. Infrequent washing of hair and skin can lead to acne and low self esteem. Poor hygiene could be a sign for depression Outcome 2You can address the issue of personal hygiene in a sensitive matter by giving the service user the choice of what they want to have either wash/shower/bath and when they want to have one morning/afternoon/evening or if they would like support and how much. Explaining how it might make them feel more refreshed and better about themselves you could also give them the choice of what products they use. How to make an individual aware of the effects of poor hygiene on others Personal hygiene is a topic often brought up during the pre-teen and teen years when a youngsters body is developing.However, there are times when adults need to be reminded about personal care as well. When subtle hints about showering or using  deodorant  have no effect, a conversation is the next  step. This conversation can be uncomfortable for us and the resident but it doesnt need to be. With some preparation and a few helpful props, we can talk to someone about personal hygiene and help him implement improvements. Begin the conversation with a compliment, such as making note that the individuals hair looked very clean the previous day. Continue the conversation by stating the poor hygiene that we have noticed.Will use words like, I have noticed instead of You dont. Simply identify the problem area for the individual, whether that is showering, oral hygiene or something else. Continue the conversation by discussing the personal care steps the individual seems to be skipping. If this appears to be a shower, will ask the individual when she/he showers regularly or if she/he had time to shower that day. Evaluate the individuals response as to why the hygiene step has been skipped. If it wasnt skipped, then the next step would be to discuss how to do it correctly.Will provide a demonstration if possible or offer the correct hygiene products to fulfil the task. State our concern over the individuals hygiene. Phrase the concern carefully and use caring words. Will offer the individual the personal care item she/he may be lacking, such as deodorant or  mouth wash. Will end the conversation by affirming the person. This can be done by stating how much we care for him/her, assuring that this hygiene issue doesnt change our relationship or helping him/her devise a personal care plan. Outcome 3There are many factors that make up good personal hygiene with the main ones being washing, oral care, hair care, nail care, wound care, cleansing of personal utensils, Personal hygiene is as it says, personal. Everybody has their own habits and standards that they have been taught or that they have learnt from others. It is essentially the promotion and continuance of good health. Poor personal cleansing can have a very significant effect on the start and spread of many illnesses through contact with nutritional consumables, some that can be potentially lethal.You need to show that, you develop and maintain relationships that promote the views, preferences and independence of individuals and key p eople. By realising that adults have a right to choose the way they are treated or cared for, take their medication and to decide if they need certain precaution measures. Support and treat all service users as individuals and with respect and dignity when considering their needs and preferences. This involves asking them their opinions on every aspect of their hygiene routine.Finding a balance for those who wish to be as independent as possible, so long as that while doing so they do not put themselves or others at risk. Starting with a warm safe place and talking to the individual about what they want or need to be assisted with personal hygiene, taking care to stay within the boundaries set up in their individual  care plans. Talking about what is going to happen and making sure they understand and are comfortable with what has been said and what will be happening.Making sure they have everything they need before you start so not to interrupt the process causing distress. Ensur ing the other members of the support team know where you are and what is happening so not to be disturbed and finally shutting the door and locking if necessary. When giving personal hygiene cover personal areas that are not being washed making sure the individual is not caused any embarrassment and as a supporter not staring but being relaxed and confident in what is happening. Ensuring throughout that you are listening and asking if everything is ok or if they are feeling uncomfortable.There is a risk that you could catch infections or disease from that individual. For example, if someone had a disease then you would have to take appropriate  steps  to avoid catching it, or if they had a virus staff need to ensure they wear appropriate personal protection equipment There is also a risk to your physical health, for example, if you had to help move someone or support them in their movement in order to carry out personal hygiene, you would want to avoid injuring your back, or som e other part of your body.Others who might be involved supporting someone to maintain their personal hygiene can range from other support workers,  team leaders, key workers or managers of the residential home to professional people such as a district nurse,  dentist  or doctor. But the first stop maybe with the individual them self’s or a family member, for some it maybe an advocate Outcome 4. Injury or Illness- A serious injury can cause some people to develop poor personal hygiene. If they dont feel comfortable asking for help with bathing, this condition may continue until their injury heals.The same can occur when an illness leaves someone feeling weak. Anxiety, depression  or other mental illness may make it hard for people to keep up with bathing. Treatment of the illness is typically required to address this. /Puberty is a difficult time for many pre-teens and teenagers. Sometimes they rebel against puberty with poor personal hygiene. /Age being extremely old or extremely young can make it difficult to have proper personal hygiene. Assistance is often requiredAn individual does not want to expose certain parts of the body (could be cultural or a personal preference and could be any part of the body not just private parts work with them to ensure that their preference is adhered to. An individual has a particular personal hygiene routine (again it could be cultural or personal preference) provide resources and support. An individual gets  confused  and distressed when bathing eg has  dementia   provide a warm room temperature as cold can be distressing, keep calm, use measures that usually calm the individual eg music.

Project Progress Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Progress - Assignment Example The cases of identity theft and information un-safeness have increased in many countries and hence the passing of laws for citizen protection. Organizations are expected to create risk management plans that will take precaution on data security and prevent occurrences that threaten the private data of their customers. Information is important to all stakeholders(Gray & Larson,2008). Flayton electronics has recently been involved in digital purchasing by providing the service of purchasing using credit cards. They have failed in protecting the customer’s data and cases of fraud using the credit card information were reported. With this happening, the company exposed its failure to fulfill their legal duty to protect the customer information. The company was expected to have a self-sufficient risk management plan that would analyze and access risks of any project that they are involved in. This would ensure that they design specific responses to any anticipated risk. The risk management manager did not analyze the risks involved in the new business trend and hence the risk occurred hitting the company by surprise. The number of bad cards purchased was above average and hence many goods were purchased wrongly. This means that the company lost a lot of money through purchases made without real or using accounts of other people without their knowledge. The company has not lost only in terms of product reduction but also in terms of capital. This is a draw back to the company since it impossible to retrieve back the goods and is expensive to compensate the customers. The company will also suffer in terms of losing the loyalty of the customers(well-stam,2004). The customers had entrusted the company with their bank information that they failed to protect. It is the expectation of all the customers that their information is kept private and free from being damaged by other people. The customers whose information was wrongly

Group Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Group Motivation - Essay Example All workers in any organization always want something to keep them going. Normally, salaries and wages are always enough to keep workers. These employees should be motivated to work and if this is absent there is always cause deterioration in work output or the work quality. Same to motivation of an audience where both hard sell and soft sell takes place. Incentives on workers ’salaries motivate them intrinsically and an urge to work more hard is seen. According to Mc Gregory theory x and y human being must be motivated to work. Maslow’s’ theory also emphasizes motivation out of satisfaction of human needs to the highest level of satisfaction. A personal life experience is when youths in a community are told to volunteer to clean their environment only a few people show up but when there is motivation in form of wages the turn up will be more than expected. In a nutshell, motivation deals more with human cognitive levels. This is explained by conditioning a human being by introduction of motivators of different levels. Generally people are motivated by provision of what creates a sense of

Human Resource Management in Mercedes-Benz USA Research Paper

Human Resource Management in Mercedes-Benz USA - Research Paper Example The company also provides valuable services as well as depicts professionalism along with fulfilling the needs of the customers. Mercedes-Benz is considered as one of the top companies for the effective management of human resources. There are varied functions which are performed by the HRM of the company. The HRM is entitled with the tasks of ensuring the number of employees or staffs required for the effective performance towards the attainment of the goals of the company. The HRM ensures that the employees who are recruited are provided with proper training facilities for their enhanced performance. The activities are to be performed in accordance with the objectives. The HR department had sorted out the issues for better performance of the employees as well as managing the workforces. The HR department follows personnel as well as management practices as per the regulations and standards of the company. The HRM of the company plays an important part for retaining the brand image with regards to the quality as well as safety along with technological advancement. The HR department recruited outstanding workers for the effective performance of the company towards the attainment of the goals. Therefore, HRM is an important element for leading the company to be considered as one of the top and preferred companies. Mercedes-Benz possesses skilled employees which enable to maintain the competitiveness as along with producing innovative and superior products or services (Daimler AG, 2012). The HRM of the company have to formulate plans for developing competitiveness. The company is competitive with regards to the strategies which will help in having enhanced cost leadership as well as...This paper will discuss the factors had helped the company in maintaining its motive of proving quality as well as differentiated products. Mercedes-Benz US is a corporation entitled with the task of distributing as well as marketing of vehicles. In accordance with the Fortune Magaz ine the company is ranked in the twelfth position among the â€Å"100 best companies to work for in America†. One of the important reasons for acquiring such position by the company is its HRM. The HRM has taken initiatives for providing the employees an environment which will enhance the performance of the employees. There are five dimensions which are â€Å"credibility, respect, fairness, pride as well as camaraderie† that play significant roles for determining the performance of the company. The employees are appropriately trained as well as organized for efficient performance and to attain the goals or objective of the company. The HRM is required to formulate plans and policies which will encourage the employees to perform their tasks in an efficient manner. The HR policies of the company should include all these five dimensions for enhanced performance towards the goal.

The Role Of Librarians In National Development Education Essay

The Role Of Librarians In National Development Education Essay Public libraries are inclusive institutions created for everyone to equally and freely access information for educational, social and cultural development; indeed that is the essence of inclusion. However, this is not true because defining and identifying user inclusion is a difficult task due to the wide range of factors that cause potential users exclusion from using public libraries. This is unfortunate, because the major function of a public library is to meet the information needs of all community members without discrimination. Previous research has shown that librarians usually draw two conclusions about exclusion factors: first, it is users personal preference when they do not use library services; and secondly, inadequate marketing of public library services to the citizenry. This is due to the fact that a public library as an inclusive institution is so ardently incorporated into the identity of public librarianship that questioning the social inclusiveness of libraries rar ely occurs. This paper examines the issue of exclusion, attempts to define the inclusive society, and subsequently makes recommendation on how the librarians can use their professional capacity in service provision to combat the exclusion in the society in turn enhance development. Keywords: Evolving Professional Roles Introduction The term public library first appeared in Latin (bibliotheca publica) as a technical term in the 17th Century to distinguish the general University libraries of Oxford and Cambridge by then from those of endowed libraries (Kinya, 2011). UNESCO (1994) showed its recognition of public libraries when it stated that the public library is the principal means where the records of mans thoughts and ideas and the expression of his imagination are made freely available to all. In its manifesto, UNESCO further directs that the public library shall in principle be free of charge and services should be provided on the basis of equality of access for all persons regardless of age, race, gender, religion, nationality, language or social status. The manifesto declares UNESCOs belief in the public library as a breathing force for education, culture and information and as an indispensable agent for the nurturing of peace and spiritual wellbeing of society. This is in line with Cullen(2003) who define d public library system as a combination of people, activities, events and object resources working together to convert inputs to outputs. Such libraries serve communities with multipurpose information free of charge or at nominal fee (Thompson, 1974). Initially, Tanzania Library Service (TLS), established 1975, succeeding the Tanganyika Library Services Board of 1963. TLS has authority over documentation services, training of librarians public libraries, literary campaigns and it promotes indigenous literature. Public library and Information Access Discussion of the concept of public libraries would bear less meaning if global emphasis on freedom of access to information and the right to information are not mentioned here. The right of access to information is considered as a crucial human right and useful tool for individual, societal prosperity, freedom and development. An informed society exercises it democratic rights and plays a vigorous role in the society. However, productive contribution and the development of democracy depend on acceptable education and unlimited access to thought, culture and information (Kinya, 2011). Freedom of access to information (to use, share and distribute) is a right praised by some as the very core of the information society, and accused by others of being a merely formal standard with little practical reality in a world where the majority of the population does not have access to information (Pateman, 2010). With access to information, people should freely express themselves, since freedom of expression is one of the basic conditions for societys progress and for the development of every man. The effective implementation of freedom of expression requires citizens access to express opinions and to seek information in the public sphere; hence one of the current biggest challenges is to ensure that the exclusive charter of the information society is replaced by inclusiveness. This is something that any popular government in the world should pursue as echoed by some researchers who pointed out that a popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or perhaps both (Pateman, 2010; Lor, 2003). In support of what the governments should do to realize this dream of developing an informed society, the World Summit on the information society (WSIS) Declaration of 2003 created a vision for the information society. The WSIS defined information society as a people-centered, inclusive and development oriented information society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge to enable individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life. Unequal access to information leads to unequal distribution of wealth and resources in the world and poverty and lack of infrastructure and development at all levels, for example, health and education. Public Libraries thus form a basic information delivery infrastructure and act as repositories of information and knowledge that provide access to information and ideas to people. This may have been the principle behind the Governing Board of IFLA, in its anniversary meeting in Glasglow, Scotland (2002) that declared that public libraries should: Ensure their services respect equity Provide access to information, ideas and works of imagination in various formats, supporting personal development of all age groups and active participation in society and decision-making process Contribute to the development and maintenance of intellectual freedom and help safeguard basic democratic values and universal civil rights Acquire, preserve and make available to all users without discrimination the widest variety of materials; and Tackle information inequality demonstrated in the growing information gap and the digital divide. Social Information Exclusion Information exclusion and inclusion debates have emerged as strong issues at both national and international levels in the recent past. Social information exclusion offends human dignity, denies information seekers their fundamental human rights which threatens the democracy of any nation. According to UK government, social exclusion is a shorthand term for what can happen when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low income, poor housing, high crime, bad health and family breakdown. Social exclusion can happen to anyone either directly or indirectly. However, some people are significantly more at risk than others (Pateman, 2010). Social exclusion refers to needs of groups and individuals who do not have access to services and facilities or to a societys decision making and or power structures and this is sometimes seen as a key policy issue (Pateman, 2010). Rao (2005) suggested that social exclusion can never be contained in isolation but the effort has to be multidimensional and multi-pronged. These dimensions are both technological and economic and include connectivity, content, community, commerce, capacity, culture, cooperation and capital (Rao, 2000). The prevailing discourse concerning social exclusion reflects a set of views about those who are disadvantaged: suffering from poverty, poor housing and health, family breakdown, unemployment, criminal environments and limited life chances, and about the barriers that prevent their social integration. Social exclusion is the result of combination of linked problems and affects both individuals and communities. The causes are seen as multiple and complex, and therefore need to be tackled in a holistic way rather than each being seen as separate and unrelated. It requires joined-up solutions. This means that the Tanzania Library Services must work together in partnership with both public and private organization to tackle social information exclusion. Exclusion has been seen as the inevitable consequence of economic growth and development. Social and cultural regeneration are now needed to address the problems that have resulted. It is argued that social exclusion denies people their f undamental human rights leading to social and economic instability, marginalization and deepening inequalities, which threatens the stability of democracy in Tanzania . Social Information Inclusion In the context of provision of information to all, social information inclusion refers to giving all people access to the information, services and facilities that they have a right to, and making sure that they are fully aware of and know how to take up their entitlement to these services (MLA, 2007, p.9). Social inclusion has various benefits that include: Democratic participation and understanding Provision of information to all members of a society is essential for public participation in all activities pertaining to the society. The public is truly able to participate in the democratic process only when they have information about the activities and policies of the government. When the public knows the reasons behind some of the government decisions, its support is guaranteed and misunderstandings and dissatisfaction are reduced. This was supported by New Zealand Official Information Act of 1982 which noted that freedom of information could not be expected to end all differences of opinion within the community or to resolve major political issues but when applied systematically can lead to narrow differences of opinion, increase the effectiveness of policies adopted and strengthen public confidence in the system (Pateman, 2010). Improved decision making process Past researches indicate that decisions that are made public due to right to information laws are more likely to be based on objective and justifiable reasons. For example, the Australian law reform commission and administration Review Council in 1997 found out that freedom of information Act has had a marked impact on the way people make decisions and record information. The Commission observed that since the enforcement of the right to information to all, decision makers focused on the need to base decisions on relevant information. Reduce danger of human rights violations Right to information to improve the enforcement of many economic and political rights is greatly enhanced. For example, In Thailand, a mother whose daughter was denied entry into an elite state school demanded the schools entrance exam results. When she was turned down, she appealed to the Information Commission Courts. In the end, she obtained information showing that children of influential people were accepted into the school even if they got low scores. This compelled the council of state to issue an order that all schools accept students solely on merit. In addition, access to individual records ensures such records are accurate and decisions are not based on out-of-date or irrelevant information. The right to information has other advantages that include exposing corruption, making government and the economy more efficient; uncover mismanagement of food supplies; making economic shortages less likely; and expose environmental hazards that threaten health and livelihoods. Aspects of Information Exclusion Literacy levels and language of publications Levels of literacy and the predominance of principal world languages such as English as the language of printed and online information are elements of exclusion. Many oral communities are not able to make meaning through interaction with printed resources, and hence are unable to participate in the envisaged information society. Those oral communities consider interaction with information resources as a one way communication system, quite discontinuous with indigenous forms of communication. To tackle this challenge of literacy, TLS, which is the major public library in Tanzania, through various reading campaigns, provides opportunities for communities to enhance their reading and information seeking habits, and therefore sustain literacy. It is clearly known that, an informed individual has more advantages on proper decision towards development issue compared to a illiterate. Physical Access to libraries According to Kiondo (1998) distance from the library is a crucial factor in its use. The nearer the library, the more people will use it; and the further it is away; the less people will use it. Their research on Camel libraries affirmed this when the findings indicated that more users were within a distance of 1km from where public library services were being offered. Many libraries in Tanzania are concentrated in cities and major towns in Tanzania. This leaves the remote parts of the country excluded from access to information that is crucial for the communities to make informed decisions (Jemo, 2008) as an example from Kenya. Over the years, the Government of Tanzania through the Tanzania Library Services (TLS) has tried to eliminate this kind of exclusion by opening community and mobile libraries. Currently, TLS has over 50 branches spread countrywide. However, much more needs to be done because there are still large populations in exclusion that need to be included. Thus, among the 26 regions in Tanzania, there are still many districts where such libraries have not yet been established. It should be noted that Tanzania economy is backed on agriculture, of which are found in rural areas (districts). Challenged Persons The available public libraries in Tanzania were not designed keeping in mind the needs of the physically and visually challenged information users. This disadvantaged group form party of the society that needs information to enable them participate in all areas of national development. They also need to be sensitized more on their rights; something that can happen only if they have access to relevant information. ICT skills Many public libraries today have developed to what we call hybrid type; providing both print and electronic resources, while putting more emphasis on electronic resources due to their ability to be accessed by multiple users concurrently. Inadequate ICT skills and support to use electronic resources is however a significant factor in preventing certain persons from accessing information in Tanzania. Potential information users in many of the disadvantaged groups are often prevented from making use of ICTs because of low levels of computing and technology skills. This challenge is made more complex by attitudinal barriers with some excluded citizens pointing out that computers are for brainy people, for males, for the young and are difficult to use (Muddiman et al, 2001). Others feel that computers are unsafe because of the amount of unsuitable material on the internet (Botha et al, 2002,p. 22). Further research has indicated some disparities between male and female use in ICTs with access to the internet by male counterparts being greater in developing countries than female (United Nations , 2000). This has had serious implications, especially for women in the participation of national and global economic growth. Connectivity Though internet facilities are fairly spread in Tanzania like any other country in East Africa, there is remarkable concentration in urban centres with institutions far remote from cities experiencing difficulties in getting connection (Mutula,2002), an evidence of low level of exclusion with regard to ICT network. Hence appropriate technology for rural and disadvantaged communities is lacking. Even in the areas where communities are connected and have the skill to access online information they face another challenge of low speed internet and limited bandwidth. For example, to open a document to read takes quite a while because of the snail speed of the internet. Funding The planning, executing and implementation of any programme requires considerable financial support. However, the extent of financial support whether at local government or provincial government level in developing countries and particularly in Tanzania, has not always been consistent (Raju, 1995, p.194). Survey findings of the public library sector in Tanzania revealed inadequate funding and the consequential negative impact on important aspects of public library provision (Leach, 1998). A memorandum drawn up by the Library and Information Association of South Africa (LIASA) and directed at various ministers noted that the public library services have been steadily declining and deteriorating as a result of legislative and funding issues resulting from restructuring of government at national and provincial levels. Public library funding challenges were further emphasized by Ford (2004) who pointed out that funding is one of the major challenges for public libraries around the world. Without adequate funds, public libraries are not able to acquire enough information resources to meet the needs of an inclusive society. Bridging the Information Gap and the Way Forward Librarians as Information providers can make available a variety of information collections which can be used from various physical public library location. A range of publications and access formats can be accommodated, from remote login catalogues and indexes to provision of electronic copies of entire collection or works, in print or other formats (Muddiman etal, 2001). Librarians have knowledge and experiences to build a well-balanced collection to meet social, political and economic interests of the society. This can be enhanced by giving special consideration in provision of information to predominantly oral rural communities in Tanzania. Librarians need to shift focus on documents and focus on information seekers. Traditional librarianship has been based on selecting materials to fill public library shelves and then wait for information seekers to visit the facility in search of information. On the contrary, in order for the library personnel to effectively meet information seekers diverse life needs, the information services have to be informed by the communities in which the libraries operate, and information needs to be based on regular assessment processes. Repackaging the product of orality is essential considering that communities are rich with information that is in oral form that needs to be captured and repackaged (manuscripts and print) in the appropriate media such as video, digital photos, and tapes in a collaborative and ethical manner. This should be based on the understanding of the communities to which the information service is being provided. Librarians should become researchers to enable them to frequently interact with library users and prompt them to define their information needs. It is the responsibility of the librarian to then prioritize highly relevant information from a pool of interesting information according to user preferences (Kenny, 2002). In addition, the librarian should identify through community profiles and other methodologies such as needs analysis, all groups and individuals that are socially excluded or are at risk of information exclusion for inclusion. Librarians should effectively play the role of a reference and referral information manager. This will involve directing members of the knowledge community to outside information when appropriate and maintain high level information about sources outside the community (ibid). A reference librarian needs to be widely knowledgeable in terms of resources and where they can be found for use and appropriately directing information seekers to relevant information resources. Librarians through their professional Associations such as Tanzania Library Association (TLA) should establish a Council Committee on social information exclusion. This Council would be charged with the responsibility of highlighting the plight of those socially excluded, draw up strategies on narrowing the exclusion gap and come up with progress reports. The Council should actively engage the socially excluded people through involving them in the planning, implementation and monitoring of services through performance indicators and targets to measure success achieved in tackling social exclusion. The image and identity of a public library is also an important factor when discussing social inclusion matters. The connotation of some of the public library names is unwelcoming. The librarian can positively influence this by considering local measures such as renaming the libraries, (for example Community resource centres, Idea stores and many more). This is in line with Ward (1996) idea of changing names of libraries when he pointed out that the term mobile information delivery systems is more appropriate than the mobile libraries.The rebranding of a traditional public library name gives it a new image that is proactive, friendly, relevant and easily accessible environment. Other library practices and procedures should be reviewed to ensure they are not barriers to information access. For instance, procedures of becoming public library members should not be over-bureaucratic. Librarians should also establish more self-help public access terminal to overcome barriers to use experi enced by some excluded potential information users. Librarians need to be careful when planning for new public libraries. Priority should be given to those libraries serving communities in greatest need. Relocation and collocation with community centres, schools, leisure centres and other centres used by socially excluded people should be considered in order to improve the impact of public libraries in tackling social exclusion (Pateman, 2010). Working with neighbouring authorities to effectively deliver services to socially excluded communities may be an appropriate action for librarians to take. Collection development needs to be critically examined to ensure that it is comprehensive enough and relevant to the community which the library serves. The policy should be based on the needs and interests of local potential information users, reflecting diversity of society as well as define purpose, scope and content of the collection (Kinya, 2011). Librarians also need to liaise with material suppliers (writers, publishers, booksellers etc.) to identify the range of materials available for socially excluded people and gaps in that provision. To remain relevant, Librarians should draw up ICT plans outlining how the needs of those excluded communities and individuals are to be prioritized (Jemo, 2008).Take a case in Kenya Mutula (2002, p.3) puts it that wider Internet connectivity can enhance Kenyas economic growth meaning more people spending more time on the Internet and many organizations using the Internet to do business and creation of many technical related jobs. It is therefore the responsibility of librarians to improve connectivity, increase access, through use of multiple competing technologies, public and community access points, and sharing of best practices. Public library human resources should also be developed through ICT trainings, enhanced awareness of decision makers, and expansion of ICT learning opportunities to the rural, poor, and disenfranchised (Wolff , 2005). The Future In the context of a government that wishes to give a higher profile to information access, we need to raise critical questions about policies and the role of information access in reducing social exclusion. The emphasis on joined-up thinking at least recognizes the complexities of social and cultural life, and moves citizens away from over simplistic notions about the causes of poverty, unemployment, racism and other forms of discrimination. Librarians need to be aware of making simplistic assumptions, especially when there is prior experience upon which to draw their information decisions for the benefit of the citizenry. Despite their different epistemological bases, it is possible to be argued that there can be no social inclusion unless there is social exclusion. The elimination of social exclusion as a practical activity is unachievable. Moreover, seeking to promote social inclusion heighten awareness of difference and social exclusion. In this sense, we need to understand that non-exclusion is not the same as inclusion, and that we must avoid taking away the freedom of those who choose not to be included. Conclusion The social information exclusion in public libraries in Tanzania is real. Therefore along term effort to meet the needs of the excluded and vulnerable society with a commitment to improved information structures will contribute to meeting the information needs of the excluded information seekers in public libraries. This will only be achieved if there is improved and well coordinated information infrastructure. Regular information user surveys reviews will go a long way in minimizing information provision exclusion and subsequently increase inclusion of information services and programs. Librarians in Tanzania therefore have a greater opportunity to make meaningful contribution to the realization of comprehensive information inclusion.

A Comparison of the Carbon Footprint of Retail Stores Patagonia, H&M, and The Wardrobe :: Global Warming Climate Change Carbon Emissions

Are you worried about global climate change? Have you ever wondered how you contribute to this problem? What about the impact of the clothes you buy? We have put together estimated information from three different types of stores to help you realize options you have as consumers to be more green. Patagonia is an example of an environmentally conscious and globally active store. The same is true for H&M but it aims to provide affordable, fashionable clothing at the same time. The Wardrobe in Davis, California is an example of a local store, community built and owned. It is important to consider the environmental impact of the stores you support and the clothes you buy. Local stores have the lowest impact because their transportation needs are less than those of stores part of a chain. However, although larger stores may emit more carbon simply because they are bigger, some are committed to cutting down on their carbon footprint. CARBON FOOTPRINTS Patagonia 303.66 tons CO2/yr H&M 261,376.75 tons CO2/yr The Wardrobe 54.13 tons CO2/yr Patagonia Patagonia's Carbon footprint of 303.66 tons of CO2 per year was calculated from estimating the lights in each store to 40.89 tons of CO2 (13%) from the electricity for 47 energy saver bulbs, and 182.85 tons of CO2 (61%) from electricity for 100 fluorescent tube lights, 71 tons of CO2 (23%) from the fuels burned for shipping to the stores from the distribution center, 8.23 tons of CO2 (3%) from the fuels burned for shipping clothes from the distribution center to the European stores by sea freight, and 1.3 tons of CO2 ( H&M H&M calculated it emitted 73,593.61 tons of CO2 to power its buildings (28%), 161,273.66 tons of CO2 for transportation of its clothing (62%), 23,517.81 tons of CO2 for business travel (9%), and 2,991.67 tons for fuel for its company cars (1%). The Wardrobe The Wardrobes footprint of 54.13 tons of CO2 per year was calculated using the 4.81 tons of CO2 (9%) from electricity for their four desktop computers, 0.99 tons CO2 (2%) from electricity for the 11 show lights kept lit 24 hours a day, everyday, 1.31 tons of CO2 (2%) from electricity for the 47 lights turned on during store hours equalling 52 hours a week, 6.