Sexual Preference, Gender, and Blame Essays - Rape, Sexual Abuse

The Journal of Social Psychology, 2011, 151(5), 592607 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Sexual Preference, Gender, and Blame Attributions in Adolescent Sexual Assault MICHELLE DAVIES KERRY AUSTEN PAUL ROGERS University of Central Lancashire ABSTRACT. The study investigated the impact of victim sexual orientation, perpetrator gender, and participant gender on judgements toward a 15-year-old male victim of a depicted sexual assault. One hundred and eight-eight participants (97 male, 91 female) read a hypothetical scenario depicting the sexual assault of a 15-year-old male victim where the victims sexual orientation and the perpetrators gender were varied between subjects. Participants then completed a questionnaire assessing their attributions toward both the victim and the perpetrator. Results revealed that male participants blamed the victim more than female participants when the victim was both gay and attacked by a male perpetrator. All participants, regardless of gender, made more positive judgements toward the female as opposed to male perpetrator. Results are discussed in relation to gender role stereotypes and homophobia. Keywords: gender, homosexuality, sexual assault, sexual preference CHILDREN OF BOTH GENDERS ARE AFFECTED by child sexual abuse (CSA). Fergusson and Mullen (1999) reviewed studies over a period of 20 years and found CSA prevalence rates ranging from 3% to 30% for males and 6% to 62% for females, depending on the definition and type of measure used (see also Bolen, Russell & Scannapieco, 2000). In Britain, the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) estimated that around 1.1 million of British girls (21%) and half-a- million British boys (17%) have experienced some form of sexual abuse with around 16% of girls and 7% of boys being victims of contact CSA (that is, CSA where there is direct physical contact between victim and perpetrator, rather than non-contact CSA, which does not involve direct contact, such as forcing a child to watch pornography; Cawson, Wattam, Brooker Nurse, 2006; see Bacon, 2008). Address correspondence to Michelle Davies, University of Central Lancashire, School of Psychology, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, UK; [emailprotected] (e-mail). 592 Davies, Austen, & Rogers 593 More sample-specific rates of the lifetime prevalence of sexual abuse on males have been investigated among gay and bisexual men who had been sexually assaulted both as children and adults. Hickson, Davies, Hunt, Weatherburn, McManus and Coxon (1994) investigated rates of non-consensual sexual activity among 930 gay and bisexual males, living in England and Wales. Of these, 257 (27.6%) had been subjected to non-consensual sexual activity at some point in their lives. In this study 10 of the cases stated the perpetrator was female. Gay and bisexual youths appear to be victimized physically and sexually during childhood and adolescence more so than heterosexual youths (Finkelhor & Dziuba-Leatherman, 1994; see Davies, 2002, for a review of other prevalence studies in relation to male sexual assault). Victims of sexual assaults are sometimes considered partly responsible for their abuse. Howard (1984) found that male victims of (adult) sexual assault were blamed more for their own abuse than were their female counterparts. Moreover, this blaming stemmed from observers negative perceptions of males victims behavior (e.g. looking scared, failing to fight back or escape) during and/or immediately after their ordeal. Such failures to protect oneself during a (sexual) confrontation violate the gender stereotype that men are strong and in control (Thompson & Pleck, 1986) and subsequently increases the amount of responsibility attributed to victims for their own (sexual) assault (Howard, 1984). Perceptions of adult male sexual assault victims also differ in terms of observers endorsement of negative attitudes toward homosexuality. Anderson (2004), for instance, found that expressing high levels of homophobia predicted negative perceptions on male rape victims, more so amongst male than female participants. Additionally, Davies and McCartney (2003) found that whilst heterosexual men blame male rape victims, gay men do not. This gives further support to the notion that holding negative attitudes toward gay men will contribute to the blaming male of sexual assault victims. Finally, several studies have shown that male victims portrayed as gay are blamed more than those portrayed as heterosexual (Burt Davies, Pollard & Archer, 2001, Davies, Pollard Davies, Rogers Davies Ford, Liwag-McLamb Mitchell, Hirschman & Nagayama-Hall, 1999; Wakelin see Davies & Rogers, 2006, for a review), adding further support for the homophobia hypothesis. Another factor to influence attributions toward male sexual assault victims is perpetrator gender. Smith, Pine and Hawley (1988), showed that adult male victims (whose sexual orientation was not specified) were more negatively evaluated when assaulted by a femalerather than maleperpetrator. Davies and colleagues (2006) furthered Smith and colleagues work

Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Example

Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Example Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay Principles of Support for Maintaining Good Personal Hy Essay It is important to maintain good hygiene in order to care for your own personal appearance and eliminate body odours which might offend others/embarrass yourself. Personal hygiene refers to cleaning and grooming the body. Personal hygiene is an important way of protecting the body again diseases and infections. Good hygiene promotes self esteem and general well-being. Poor hygiene is known to be ill received by general public. Poor hygiene is known effect people’s health and can lead to health problems as well as appearance.The failure to maintain good personal hygiene can result in illness of different kinds such as the breakdown of skin, ulcers and boils. Poor oral hygiene can lead to heart disease and plaque causing build up in the arteries. Poor hand washing can lead to spread of infectious disease such as salmonella infection. Infrequent washing of hair and skin can lead to acne and low self esteem. Poor hygiene could be a sign for depression Outcome 2You can address the issue of personal hygiene in a sensitive matter by giving the service user the choice of what they want to have either wash/shower/bath and when they want to have one morning/afternoon/evening or if they would like support and how much. Explaining how it might make them feel more refreshed and better about themselves you could also give them the choice of what products they use. How to make an individual aware of the effects of poor hygiene on others Personal hygiene is a topic often brought up during the pre-teen and teen years when a youngsters body is developing.However, there are times when adults need to be reminded about personal care as well. When subtle hints about showering or using  deodorant  have no effect, a conversation is the next  step. This conversation can be uncomfortable for us and the resident but it doesnt need to be. With some preparation and a few helpful props, we can talk to someone about personal hygiene and help him implement improvements. Begin the conversation with a compliment, such as making note that the individuals hair looked very clean the previous day. Continue the conversation by stating the poor hygiene that we have noticed.Will use words like, I have noticed instead of You dont. Simply identify the problem area for the individual, whether that is showering, oral hygiene or something else. Continue the conversation by discussing the personal care steps the individual seems to be skipping. If this appears to be a shower, will ask the individual when she/he showers regularly or if she/he had time to shower that day. Evaluate the individuals response as to why the hygiene step has been skipped. If it wasnt skipped, then the next step would be to discuss how to do it correctly.Will provide a demonstration if possible or offer the correct hygiene products to fulfil the task. State our concern over the individuals hygiene. Phrase the concern carefully and use caring words. Will offer the individual the personal care item she/he may be lacking, such as deodorant or  mouth wash. Will end the conversation by affirming the person. This can be done by stating how much we care for him/her, assuring that this hygiene issue doesnt change our relationship or helping him/her devise a personal care plan. Outcome 3There are many factors that make up good personal hygiene with the main ones being washing, oral care, hair care, nail care, wound care, cleansing of personal utensils, Personal hygiene is as it says, personal. Everybody has their own habits and standards that they have been taught or that they have learnt from others. It is essentially the promotion and continuance of good health. Poor personal cleansing can have a very significant effect on the start and spread of many illnesses through contact with nutritional consumables, some that can be potentially lethal.You need to show that, you develop and maintain relationships that promote the views, preferences and independence of individuals and key p eople. By realising that adults have a right to choose the way they are treated or cared for, take their medication and to decide if they need certain precaution measures. Support and treat all service users as individuals and with respect and dignity when considering their needs and preferences. This involves asking them their opinions on every aspect of their hygiene routine.Finding a balance for those who wish to be as independent as possible, so long as that while doing so they do not put themselves or others at risk. Starting with a warm safe place and talking to the individual about what they want or need to be assisted with personal hygiene, taking care to stay within the boundaries set up in their individual  care plans. Talking about what is going to happen and making sure they understand and are comfortable with what has been said and what will be happening.Making sure they have everything they need before you start so not to interrupt the process causing distress. Ensur ing the other members of the support team know where you are and what is happening so not to be disturbed and finally shutting the door and locking if necessary. When giving personal hygiene cover personal areas that are not being washed making sure the individual is not caused any embarrassment and as a supporter not staring but being relaxed and confident in what is happening. Ensuring throughout that you are listening and asking if everything is ok or if they are feeling uncomfortable.There is a risk that you could catch infections or disease from that individual. For example, if someone had a disease then you would have to take appropriate  steps  to avoid catching it, or if they had a virus staff need to ensure they wear appropriate personal protection equipment There is also a risk to your physical health, for example, if you had to help move someone or support them in their movement in order to carry out personal hygiene, you would want to avoid injuring your back, or som e other part of your body.Others who might be involved supporting someone to maintain their personal hygiene can range from other support workers,  team leaders, key workers or managers of the residential home to professional people such as a district nurse,  dentist  or doctor. But the first stop maybe with the individual them self’s or a family member, for some it maybe an advocate Outcome 4. Injury or Illness- A serious injury can cause some people to develop poor personal hygiene. If they dont feel comfortable asking for help with bathing, this condition may continue until their injury heals.The same can occur when an illness leaves someone feeling weak. Anxiety, depression  or other mental illness may make it hard for people to keep up with bathing. Treatment of the illness is typically required to address this. /Puberty is a difficult time for many pre-teens and teenagers. Sometimes they rebel against puberty with poor personal hygiene. /Age being extremely old or extremely young can make it difficult to have proper personal hygiene. Assistance is often requiredAn individual does not want to expose certain parts of the body (could be cultural or a personal preference and could be any part of the body not just private parts work with them to ensure that their preference is adhered to. An individual has a particular personal hygiene routine (again it could be cultural or personal preference) provide resources and support. An individual gets  confused  and distressed when bathing eg has  dementia   provide a warm room temperature as cold can be distressing, keep calm, use measures that usually calm the individual eg music.

Project Progress Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project Progress - Assignment Example The cases of identity theft and information un-safeness have increased in many countries and hence the passing of laws for citizen protection. Organizations are expected to create risk management plans that will take precaution on data security and prevent occurrences that threaten the private data of their customers. Information is important to all stakeholders(Gray & Larson,2008). Flayton electronics has recently been involved in digital purchasing by providing the service of purchasing using credit cards. They have failed in protecting the customer’s data and cases of fraud using the credit card information were reported. With this happening, the company exposed its failure to fulfill their legal duty to protect the customer information. The company was expected to have a self-sufficient risk management plan that would analyze and access risks of any project that they are involved in. This would ensure that they design specific responses to any anticipated risk. The risk management manager did not analyze the risks involved in the new business trend and hence the risk occurred hitting the company by surprise. The number of bad cards purchased was above average and hence many goods were purchased wrongly. This means that the company lost a lot of money through purchases made without real or using accounts of other people without their knowledge. The company has not lost only in terms of product reduction but also in terms of capital. This is a draw back to the company since it impossible to retrieve back the goods and is expensive to compensate the customers. The company will also suffer in terms of losing the loyalty of the customers(well-stam,2004). The customers had entrusted the company with their bank information that they failed to protect. It is the expectation of all the customers that their information is kept private and free from being damaged by other people. The customers whose information was wrongly

Group Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Group Motivation - Essay Example All workers in any organization always want something to keep them going. Normally, salaries and wages are always enough to keep workers. These employees should be motivated to work and if this is absent there is always cause deterioration in work output or the work quality. Same to motivation of an audience where both hard sell and soft sell takes place. Incentives on workers ’salaries motivate them intrinsically and an urge to work more hard is seen. According to Mc Gregory theory x and y human being must be motivated to work. Maslow’s’ theory also emphasizes motivation out of satisfaction of human needs to the highest level of satisfaction. A personal life experience is when youths in a community are told to volunteer to clean their environment only a few people show up but when there is motivation in form of wages the turn up will be more than expected. In a nutshell, motivation deals more with human cognitive levels. This is explained by conditioning a human being by introduction of motivators of different levels. Generally people are motivated by provision of what creates a sense of

Human Resource Management in Mercedes-Benz USA Research Paper

Human Resource Management in Mercedes-Benz USA - Research Paper Example The company also provides valuable services as well as depicts professionalism along with fulfilling the needs of the customers. Mercedes-Benz is considered as one of the top companies for the effective management of human resources. There are varied functions which are performed by the HRM of the company. The HRM is entitled with the tasks of ensuring the number of employees or staffs required for the effective performance towards the attainment of the goals of the company. The HRM ensures that the employees who are recruited are provided with proper training facilities for their enhanced performance. The activities are to be performed in accordance with the objectives. The HR department had sorted out the issues for better performance of the employees as well as managing the workforces. The HR department follows personnel as well as management practices as per the regulations and standards of the company. The HRM of the company plays an important part for retaining the brand image with regards to the quality as well as safety along with technological advancement. The HR department recruited outstanding workers for the effective performance of the company towards the attainment of the goals. Therefore, HRM is an important element for leading the company to be considered as one of the top and preferred companies. Mercedes-Benz possesses skilled employees which enable to maintain the competitiveness as along with producing innovative and superior products or services (Daimler AG, 2012). The HRM of the company have to formulate plans for developing competitiveness. The company is competitive with regards to the strategies which will help in having enhanced cost leadership as well as...This paper will discuss the factors had helped the company in maintaining its motive of proving quality as well as differentiated products. Mercedes-Benz US is a corporation entitled with the task of distributing as well as marketing of vehicles. In accordance with the Fortune Magaz ine the company is ranked in the twelfth position among the â€Å"100 best companies to work for in America†. One of the important reasons for acquiring such position by the company is its HRM. The HRM has taken initiatives for providing the employees an environment which will enhance the performance of the employees. There are five dimensions which are â€Å"credibility, respect, fairness, pride as well as camaraderie† that play significant roles for determining the performance of the company. The employees are appropriately trained as well as organized for efficient performance and to attain the goals or objective of the company. The HRM is required to formulate plans and policies which will encourage the employees to perform their tasks in an efficient manner. The HR policies of the company should include all these five dimensions for enhanced performance towards the goal.

The Role Of Librarians In National Development Education Essay

The Role Of Librarians In National Development Education Essay Public libraries are inclusive institutions created for everyone to equally and freely access information for educational, social and cultural development; indeed that is the essence of inclusion. However, this is not true because defining and identifying user inclusion is a difficult task due to the wide range of factors that cause potential users exclusion from using public libraries. This is unfortunate, because the major function of a public library is to meet the information needs of all community members without discrimination. Previous research has shown that librarians usually draw two conclusions about exclusion factors: first, it is users personal preference when they do not use library services; and secondly, inadequate marketing of public library services to the citizenry. This is due to the fact that a public library as an inclusive institution is so ardently incorporated into the identity of public librarianship that questioning the social inclusiveness of libraries rar ely occurs. This paper examines the issue of exclusion, attempts to define the inclusive society, and subsequently makes recommendation on how the librarians can use their professional capacity in service provision to combat the exclusion in the society in turn enhance development. Keywords: Evolving Professional Roles Introduction The term public library first appeared in Latin (bibliotheca publica) as a technical term in the 17th Century to distinguish the general University libraries of Oxford and Cambridge by then from those of endowed libraries (Kinya, 2011). UNESCO (1994) showed its recognition of public libraries when it stated that the public library is the principal means where the records of mans thoughts and ideas and the expression of his imagination are made freely available to all. In its manifesto, UNESCO further directs that the public library shall in principle be free of charge and services should be provided on the basis of equality of access for all persons regardless of age, race, gender, religion, nationality, language or social status. The manifesto declares UNESCOs belief in the public library as a breathing force for education, culture and information and as an indispensable agent for the nurturing of peace and spiritual wellbeing of society. This is in line with Cullen(2003) who define d public library system as a combination of people, activities, events and object resources working together to convert inputs to outputs. Such libraries serve communities with multipurpose information free of charge or at nominal fee (Thompson, 1974). Initially, Tanzania Library Service (TLS), established 1975, succeeding the Tanganyika Library Services Board of 1963. TLS has authority over documentation services, training of librarians public libraries, literary campaigns and it promotes indigenous literature. Public library and Information Access Discussion of the concept of public libraries would bear less meaning if global emphasis on freedom of access to information and the right to information are not mentioned here. The right of access to information is considered as a crucial human right and useful tool for individual, societal prosperity, freedom and development. An informed society exercises it democratic rights and plays a vigorous role in the society. However, productive contribution and the development of democracy depend on acceptable education and unlimited access to thought, culture and information (Kinya, 2011). Freedom of access to information (to use, share and distribute) is a right praised by some as the very core of the information society, and accused by others of being a merely formal standard with little practical reality in a world where the majority of the population does not have access to information (Pateman, 2010). With access to information, people should freely express themselves, since freedom of expression is one of the basic conditions for societys progress and for the development of every man. The effective implementation of freedom of expression requires citizens access to express opinions and to seek information in the public sphere; hence one of the current biggest challenges is to ensure that the exclusive charter of the information society is replaced by inclusiveness. This is something that any popular government in the world should pursue as echoed by some researchers who pointed out that a popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or perhaps both (Pateman, 2010; Lor, 2003). In support of what the governments should do to realize this dream of developing an informed society, the World Summit on the information society (WSIS) Declaration of 2003 created a vision for the information society. The WSIS defined information society as a people-centered, inclusive and development oriented information society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge to enable individuals, communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life. Unequal access to information leads to unequal distribution of wealth and resources in the world and poverty and lack of infrastructure and development at all levels, for example, health and education. Public Libraries thus form a basic information delivery infrastructure and act as repositories of information and knowledge that provide access to information and ideas to people. This may have been the principle behind the Governing Board of IFLA, in its anniversary meeting in Glasglow, Scotland (2002) that declared that public libraries should: Ensure their services respect equity Provide access to information, ideas and works of imagination in various formats, supporting personal development of all age groups and active participation in society and decision-making process Contribute to the development and maintenance of intellectual freedom and help safeguard basic democratic values and universal civil rights Acquire, preserve and make available to all users without discrimination the widest variety of materials; and Tackle information inequality demonstrated in the growing information gap and the digital divide. Social Information Exclusion Information exclusion and inclusion debates have emerged as strong issues at both national and international levels in the recent past. Social information exclusion offends human dignity, denies information seekers their fundamental human rights which threatens the democracy of any nation. According to UK government, social exclusion is a shorthand term for what can happen when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low income, poor housing, high crime, bad health and family breakdown. Social exclusion can happen to anyone either directly or indirectly. However, some people are significantly more at risk than others (Pateman, 2010). Social exclusion refers to needs of groups and individuals who do not have access to services and facilities or to a societys decision making and or power structures and this is sometimes seen as a key policy issue (Pateman, 2010). Rao (2005) suggested that social exclusion can never be contained in isolation but the effort has to be multidimensional and multi-pronged. These dimensions are both technological and economic and include connectivity, content, community, commerce, capacity, culture, cooperation and capital (Rao, 2000). The prevailing discourse concerning social exclusion reflects a set of views about those who are disadvantaged: suffering from poverty, poor housing and health, family breakdown, unemployment, criminal environments and limited life chances, and about the barriers that prevent their social integration. Social exclusion is the result of combination of linked problems and affects both individuals and communities. The causes are seen as multiple and complex, and therefore need to be tackled in a holistic way rather than each being seen as separate and unrelated. It requires joined-up solutions. This means that the Tanzania Library Services must work together in partnership with both public and private organization to tackle social information exclusion. Exclusion has been seen as the inevitable consequence of economic growth and development. Social and cultural regeneration are now needed to address the problems that have resulted. It is argued that social exclusion denies people their f undamental human rights leading to social and economic instability, marginalization and deepening inequalities, which threatens the stability of democracy in Tanzania . Social Information Inclusion In the context of provision of information to all, social information inclusion refers to giving all people access to the information, services and facilities that they have a right to, and making sure that they are fully aware of and know how to take up their entitlement to these services (MLA, 2007, p.9). Social inclusion has various benefits that include: Democratic participation and understanding Provision of information to all members of a society is essential for public participation in all activities pertaining to the society. The public is truly able to participate in the democratic process only when they have information about the activities and policies of the government. When the public knows the reasons behind some of the government decisions, its support is guaranteed and misunderstandings and dissatisfaction are reduced. This was supported by New Zealand Official Information Act of 1982 which noted that freedom of information could not be expected to end all differences of opinion within the community or to resolve major political issues but when applied systematically can lead to narrow differences of opinion, increase the effectiveness of policies adopted and strengthen public confidence in the system (Pateman, 2010). Improved decision making process Past researches indicate that decisions that are made public due to right to information laws are more likely to be based on objective and justifiable reasons. For example, the Australian law reform commission and administration Review Council in 1997 found out that freedom of information Act has had a marked impact on the way people make decisions and record information. The Commission observed that since the enforcement of the right to information to all, decision makers focused on the need to base decisions on relevant information. Reduce danger of human rights violations Right to information to improve the enforcement of many economic and political rights is greatly enhanced. For example, In Thailand, a mother whose daughter was denied entry into an elite state school demanded the schools entrance exam results. When she was turned down, she appealed to the Information Commission Courts. In the end, she obtained information showing that children of influential people were accepted into the school even if they got low scores. This compelled the council of state to issue an order that all schools accept students solely on merit. In addition, access to individual records ensures such records are accurate and decisions are not based on out-of-date or irrelevant information. The right to information has other advantages that include exposing corruption, making government and the economy more efficient; uncover mismanagement of food supplies; making economic shortages less likely; and expose environmental hazards that threaten health and livelihoods. Aspects of Information Exclusion Literacy levels and language of publications Levels of literacy and the predominance of principal world languages such as English as the language of printed and online information are elements of exclusion. Many oral communities are not able to make meaning through interaction with printed resources, and hence are unable to participate in the envisaged information society. Those oral communities consider interaction with information resources as a one way communication system, quite discontinuous with indigenous forms of communication. To tackle this challenge of literacy, TLS, which is the major public library in Tanzania, through various reading campaigns, provides opportunities for communities to enhance their reading and information seeking habits, and therefore sustain literacy. It is clearly known that, an informed individual has more advantages on proper decision towards development issue compared to a illiterate. Physical Access to libraries According to Kiondo (1998) distance from the library is a crucial factor in its use. The nearer the library, the more people will use it; and the further it is away; the less people will use it. Their research on Camel libraries affirmed this when the findings indicated that more users were within a distance of 1km from where public library services were being offered. Many libraries in Tanzania are concentrated in cities and major towns in Tanzania. This leaves the remote parts of the country excluded from access to information that is crucial for the communities to make informed decisions (Jemo, 2008) as an example from Kenya. Over the years, the Government of Tanzania through the Tanzania Library Services (TLS) has tried to eliminate this kind of exclusion by opening community and mobile libraries. Currently, TLS has over 50 branches spread countrywide. However, much more needs to be done because there are still large populations in exclusion that need to be included. Thus, among the 26 regions in Tanzania, there are still many districts where such libraries have not yet been established. It should be noted that Tanzania economy is backed on agriculture, of which are found in rural areas (districts). Challenged Persons The available public libraries in Tanzania were not designed keeping in mind the needs of the physically and visually challenged information users. This disadvantaged group form party of the society that needs information to enable them participate in all areas of national development. They also need to be sensitized more on their rights; something that can happen only if they have access to relevant information. ICT skills Many public libraries today have developed to what we call hybrid type; providing both print and electronic resources, while putting more emphasis on electronic resources due to their ability to be accessed by multiple users concurrently. Inadequate ICT skills and support to use electronic resources is however a significant factor in preventing certain persons from accessing information in Tanzania. Potential information users in many of the disadvantaged groups are often prevented from making use of ICTs because of low levels of computing and technology skills. This challenge is made more complex by attitudinal barriers with some excluded citizens pointing out that computers are for brainy people, for males, for the young and are difficult to use (Muddiman et al, 2001). Others feel that computers are unsafe because of the amount of unsuitable material on the internet (Botha et al, 2002,p. 22). Further research has indicated some disparities between male and female use in ICTs with access to the internet by male counterparts being greater in developing countries than female (United Nations , 2000). This has had serious implications, especially for women in the participation of national and global economic growth. Connectivity Though internet facilities are fairly spread in Tanzania like any other country in East Africa, there is remarkable concentration in urban centres with institutions far remote from cities experiencing difficulties in getting connection (Mutula,2002), an evidence of low level of exclusion with regard to ICT network. Hence appropriate technology for rural and disadvantaged communities is lacking. Even in the areas where communities are connected and have the skill to access online information they face another challenge of low speed internet and limited bandwidth. For example, to open a document to read takes quite a while because of the snail speed of the internet. Funding The planning, executing and implementation of any programme requires considerable financial support. However, the extent of financial support whether at local government or provincial government level in developing countries and particularly in Tanzania, has not always been consistent (Raju, 1995, p.194). Survey findings of the public library sector in Tanzania revealed inadequate funding and the consequential negative impact on important aspects of public library provision (Leach, 1998). A memorandum drawn up by the Library and Information Association of South Africa (LIASA) and directed at various ministers noted that the public library services have been steadily declining and deteriorating as a result of legislative and funding issues resulting from restructuring of government at national and provincial levels. Public library funding challenges were further emphasized by Ford (2004) who pointed out that funding is one of the major challenges for public libraries around the world. Without adequate funds, public libraries are not able to acquire enough information resources to meet the needs of an inclusive society. Bridging the Information Gap and the Way Forward Librarians as Information providers can make available a variety of information collections which can be used from various physical public library location. A range of publications and access formats can be accommodated, from remote login catalogues and indexes to provision of electronic copies of entire collection or works, in print or other formats (Muddiman etal, 2001). Librarians have knowledge and experiences to build a well-balanced collection to meet social, political and economic interests of the society. This can be enhanced by giving special consideration in provision of information to predominantly oral rural communities in Tanzania. Librarians need to shift focus on documents and focus on information seekers. Traditional librarianship has been based on selecting materials to fill public library shelves and then wait for information seekers to visit the facility in search of information. On the contrary, in order for the library personnel to effectively meet information seekers diverse life needs, the information services have to be informed by the communities in which the libraries operate, and information needs to be based on regular assessment processes. Repackaging the product of orality is essential considering that communities are rich with information that is in oral form that needs to be captured and repackaged (manuscripts and print) in the appropriate media such as video, digital photos, and tapes in a collaborative and ethical manner. This should be based on the understanding of the communities to which the information service is being provided. Librarians should become researchers to enable them to frequently interact with library users and prompt them to define their information needs. It is the responsibility of the librarian to then prioritize highly relevant information from a pool of interesting information according to user preferences (Kenny, 2002). In addition, the librarian should identify through community profiles and other methodologies such as needs analysis, all groups and individuals that are socially excluded or are at risk of information exclusion for inclusion. Librarians should effectively play the role of a reference and referral information manager. This will involve directing members of the knowledge community to outside information when appropriate and maintain high level information about sources outside the community (ibid). A reference librarian needs to be widely knowledgeable in terms of resources and where they can be found for use and appropriately directing information seekers to relevant information resources. Librarians through their professional Associations such as Tanzania Library Association (TLA) should establish a Council Committee on social information exclusion. This Council would be charged with the responsibility of highlighting the plight of those socially excluded, draw up strategies on narrowing the exclusion gap and come up with progress reports. The Council should actively engage the socially excluded people through involving them in the planning, implementation and monitoring of services through performance indicators and targets to measure success achieved in tackling social exclusion. The image and identity of a public library is also an important factor when discussing social inclusion matters. The connotation of some of the public library names is unwelcoming. The librarian can positively influence this by considering local measures such as renaming the libraries, (for example Community resource centres, Idea stores and many more). This is in line with Ward (1996) idea of changing names of libraries when he pointed out that the term mobile information delivery systems is more appropriate than the mobile libraries.The rebranding of a traditional public library name gives it a new image that is proactive, friendly, relevant and easily accessible environment. Other library practices and procedures should be reviewed to ensure they are not barriers to information access. For instance, procedures of becoming public library members should not be over-bureaucratic. Librarians should also establish more self-help public access terminal to overcome barriers to use experi enced by some excluded potential information users. Librarians need to be careful when planning for new public libraries. Priority should be given to those libraries serving communities in greatest need. Relocation and collocation with community centres, schools, leisure centres and other centres used by socially excluded people should be considered in order to improve the impact of public libraries in tackling social exclusion (Pateman, 2010). Working with neighbouring authorities to effectively deliver services to socially excluded communities may be an appropriate action for librarians to take. Collection development needs to be critically examined to ensure that it is comprehensive enough and relevant to the community which the library serves. The policy should be based on the needs and interests of local potential information users, reflecting diversity of society as well as define purpose, scope and content of the collection (Kinya, 2011). Librarians also need to liaise with material suppliers (writers, publishers, booksellers etc.) to identify the range of materials available for socially excluded people and gaps in that provision. To remain relevant, Librarians should draw up ICT plans outlining how the needs of those excluded communities and individuals are to be prioritized (Jemo, 2008).Take a case in Kenya Mutula (2002, p.3) puts it that wider Internet connectivity can enhance Kenyas economic growth meaning more people spending more time on the Internet and many organizations using the Internet to do business and creation of many technical related jobs. It is therefore the responsibility of librarians to improve connectivity, increase access, through use of multiple competing technologies, public and community access points, and sharing of best practices. Public library human resources should also be developed through ICT trainings, enhanced awareness of decision makers, and expansion of ICT learning opportunities to the rural, poor, and disenfranchised (Wolff , 2005). The Future In the context of a government that wishes to give a higher profile to information access, we need to raise critical questions about policies and the role of information access in reducing social exclusion. The emphasis on joined-up thinking at least recognizes the complexities of social and cultural life, and moves citizens away from over simplistic notions about the causes of poverty, unemployment, racism and other forms of discrimination. Librarians need to be aware of making simplistic assumptions, especially when there is prior experience upon which to draw their information decisions for the benefit of the citizenry. Despite their different epistemological bases, it is possible to be argued that there can be no social inclusion unless there is social exclusion. The elimination of social exclusion as a practical activity is unachievable. Moreover, seeking to promote social inclusion heighten awareness of difference and social exclusion. In this sense, we need to understand that non-exclusion is not the same as inclusion, and that we must avoid taking away the freedom of those who choose not to be included. Conclusion The social information exclusion in public libraries in Tanzania is real. Therefore along term effort to meet the needs of the excluded and vulnerable society with a commitment to improved information structures will contribute to meeting the information needs of the excluded information seekers in public libraries. This will only be achieved if there is improved and well coordinated information infrastructure. Regular information user surveys reviews will go a long way in minimizing information provision exclusion and subsequently increase inclusion of information services and programs. Librarians in Tanzania therefore have a greater opportunity to make meaningful contribution to the realization of comprehensive information inclusion.

A Comparison of the Carbon Footprint of Retail Stores Patagonia, H&M, and The Wardrobe :: Global Warming Climate Change Carbon Emissions

Are you worried about global climate change? Have you ever wondered how you contribute to this problem? What about the impact of the clothes you buy? We have put together estimated information from three different types of stores to help you realize options you have as consumers to be more green. Patagonia is an example of an environmentally conscious and globally active store. The same is true for H&M but it aims to provide affordable, fashionable clothing at the same time. The Wardrobe in Davis, California is an example of a local store, community built and owned. It is important to consider the environmental impact of the stores you support and the clothes you buy. Local stores have the lowest impact because their transportation needs are less than those of stores part of a chain. However, although larger stores may emit more carbon simply because they are bigger, some are committed to cutting down on their carbon footprint. CARBON FOOTPRINTS Patagonia 303.66 tons CO2/yr H&M 261,376.75 tons CO2/yr The Wardrobe 54.13 tons CO2/yr Patagonia Patagonia's Carbon footprint of 303.66 tons of CO2 per year was calculated from estimating the lights in each store to 40.89 tons of CO2 (13%) from the electricity for 47 energy saver bulbs, and 182.85 tons of CO2 (61%) from electricity for 100 fluorescent tube lights, 71 tons of CO2 (23%) from the fuels burned for shipping to the stores from the distribution center, 8.23 tons of CO2 (3%) from the fuels burned for shipping clothes from the distribution center to the European stores by sea freight, and 1.3 tons of CO2 ( H&M H&M calculated it emitted 73,593.61 tons of CO2 to power its buildings (28%), 161,273.66 tons of CO2 for transportation of its clothing (62%), 23,517.81 tons of CO2 for business travel (9%), and 2,991.67 tons for fuel for its company cars (1%). The Wardrobe The Wardrobes footprint of 54.13 tons of CO2 per year was calculated using the 4.81 tons of CO2 (9%) from electricity for their four desktop computers, 0.99 tons CO2 (2%) from electricity for the 11 show lights kept lit 24 hours a day, everyday, 1.31 tons of CO2 (2%) from electricity for the 47 lights turned on during store hours equalling 52 hours a week, 6.

National Foundation for Educational Research Essay

Over the last century different techniques have been used to organise children within schools according to what the public and government asked for and needed. For example â€Å"after the Second World War the number and size of schools increased, the tripartite system of secondary education was introduced and there was increased competition for grammar school places† Sukhnandan and Lee (1998 pg. 13). There was a drive for excellence and the 11 plus exam leant itself easily to the administration of streaming. However during the 1960’s research was carried out that suggested streaming had negative social consequences for pupils, which could have been the catalyst for the shift of emphasis from excellence to equality. This resulted in a shift from streaming to mixed ability teaching that continued throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s. Ability grouping, in the form of setting and within class grouping, was sometimes used in higher year groups for linear subjects such as maths, science and modern languages but mixed ability was the main grouping method. The essay question implies that again there has been a shift, this time to setting. Boaler et al (1998) seems to imply that pressures from the government are to blame for this move; suggesting research (Gewirtz, Ball & Bowe, 1993 cited in Boaler et al 1998) indicates some teachers regard the curriculum set out in the 1988 Education Reform Act as incompatible with mixed ability teaching implying that they have no choice. Today’s Governments seem to be increasingly interested in achieving goals and raising standards, even if this means children missing out on the social advantages of mixed ability grouping. Setting seems to reinforce social divisions, as there are a higher proportion of boys, children of lower socio-economic status, children born in the summer and those of ethnic minority backgrounds in the lower sets (Boaler, 1997a, 1997b. Oakes, 1982. Sutton, 1966. Cited in Sukhnandan and Lee, 1998. ) whereas children in mixed ability classes tend to come from a range of different backgrounds. I find this quite extraordinary, as the Scottish Parliament has recently spent millions on an anti-racism campaign. Surely segregating the children, albeit unintentionally, will undermine the message sent out by this campaign? The essay will discuss the advantages and disadvantages research has told us concerning setting. It will begin with the discussion of the effect of teacher’s attitudes and expectations of the set that they are teaching. It will then discuss the limitations pupils face by being placed in sets. It will discuss the social gap created by teaching children in sets. It will also discuss the advantages to the teacher of teaching children in sets and the advantages to the pupils. The essay compares setting to mixed ability teaching on several occasions this is because mixed ability teaching was the technique used before the recommendation to use setting also there seems to only be limited research on the other forms of grouping. Research has shown there to be both advantages and disadvantages to setting. Boaler et al (1998) demonstrated many disadvantages to setting. In their paper they cited a worrying statistic Jackson (1963) â€Å"96% of teachers taught to streamed ability groups† meaning they taught all the children without consideration into their individual differences. Boaler et al (1998) made reference to some of the experiences of pupils in setted mathematics classes, they reported that their teachers consistently made comments such as â€Å"you’re in the top set, you should be able to do this† and â€Å"you’re in the bottom group your not going to learn anything†. These attitudes are undoubtedly detrimental for the child. Boaler et al (1998) reported that children in higher sets were disadvantaged because their teachers had too high expectations of the children they were teaching, one third of the children taught in the highest sets felt they were being pushed to hard, that their lessons were paced too fast and they were under too much pressure to succeed because of their teachers expectations and the competitive ethos between pupils in higher sets. This was discovered to really upset certain children, Boaler et al, (1998) â€Å"I mean I get really depressed – it really depressed me, the fact that everyone in the class is like really far ahead and I just don’t understand†. It was reported that girls were the most affected by this citing the fact that although girls have been reported to be overtaking boys in all subjects boys still get the highest grades in mathematics (where the use of setting is dominant). The complete reverse was reported for those in lower sets, who felt that their lessons were too slow; they weren’t being challenged so lost interest. They believed that their teachers had no faith in them. This would then lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, they have no option but to perform to the set that they are allocated, if they are not encouraged then they will languish in the bottom sets their entire school life. This causes a self fulfilling prophecy, if they are told that they’re incapable of anything more they will begin to believe it, so they wont try to do anything more. Even if the children in the lower sets worked to be moved up into the higher sets they are unlikely to be successful. Teachers teach the children in specific sets to different tiers of an exam, so those in lower groups will not learn the same things as those in higher groups so movement between the sets would be difficult. The idea that children are taught to specific tiers is generally problematic because children are allocated to sets up to three years before they sit the exam and as mobility is rare this can have detrimental effects on their attainment if they were aware that they could only get a low grade. Boaler et al (1998) reported that only some children actually knew the implications of this. The teachers high expectations of those in higher sets and low expectations of those in lower sets causes a further social gap between the sets, those in the top sets will be called â€Å"boffins† and those in the lower sets will be seen as â€Å"stupid†. This is further intensified by the allocation of better qualified and more experienced teachers to higher sets even though research suggests (Black and Wiliam, 1998, p42 cited in Boaler et al 1998) that this type of high quality teaching is more beneficial to those children in lower sets who need more guidance as they are more easily distracted. The lower ability children will recognise that the higher ability children are seen as better and again this will have detrimental effects on their self-esteem causing them to become interested in anti-educational activities where â€Å"it’s cool to be alienated† (Hallam article from TES website, Passmore 2002) and will heighten the rift between the ability groups. In a mixed ability class for example there is a reduced distinction between children’s ability, which is beneficial to the children. There is even the suggestion that children of lower ability use those of higher ability as role models. A further problem could be caused because of a distinction made between academic and vocational subjects. Only subjects such as Maths, Science, English and Modern Languages are set while subjects such as Art and Music are mixed ability as a general rule. Children who are good at art and music may not feel as valued as those who are good at maths. The emphasis for teachers seems to be applied to children in higher sets because they get taught by the best teachers and get taught in the best classrooms. Also the children who aren’t interested may distract other children in these mixed ability groups. Ultimately this will lower their self-esteem and have a negative effect on their attainment in and feelings for the subject. Of cause there must be advantages to setting otherwise the First Minister wouldn’t have recommended it. One major advantage is that, compared to mixed ability teaching, it’s easier for teachers to implement as they can pitch work at a level that is more appropriate for the level the children are at. In mixed ability teaching a large majority of the class are unsupervised while setting lends itself to whole class teaching. This would appear to benefit those children in both higher and lower ability groups. Children in higher ability groups could be neglected and left to get on with their work in mixed ability classes while in sets these children will be given more attention, the children in with less ability will feel less inferior and more confident in groups of children with similar ability. Another benefit for high ability children is that low ability children who don’t want to learn will not distract them. The government is aiming to raise standards so it’s understandable to want to give children of higher ability a better chance. Research (Kulik and Kulik, 1982. 1987. Cited in Sukhnandan and Lee, 1998. ) shows that gifted and high ability children achieve more when placed in sets than they do when placed in mixed ability groups. It’s believed by some that high ability pupils benefit in groups with similar ability because it increases motivation by providing appropriate challenges and competition. There is also the implication that the children will be like-minded, facilitating the opportunity for them to discuss and ‘bounce ideas’ between each other. Possibly the main reason why the First Minister recommended this form of ability grouping is because all the research conducted in this area conflicts resulting in there being no truly consistent findings on the effect of ability grouping for pupil achievement. His recommendation could therefore be based on the fact that setting is easier for teachers so it is more likely children will be taught effectively. His main concern appears to be with raising standards and setting is easier to manage and improve than mixed ability teaching as set guidelines can be given for the attainment targets for each set. The blame for these inconsistent findings has been given to the research methods used. There’s a suggestion made that the outcome of ability grouping isn’t the only thing being tested. The quality of teaching, the teacher’s expectations, the pupil’s expectations and the materials available will all effect the pupil’s achievement. The evidence seems to produce more disadvantages to setting than advantages. The main ones being social rather than necessarily academic. However a child will perform better if they are happy and confident. Being labelled as â€Å"set 6† is not good for a child’s self esteem or confidence especially when teachers reinforce the idea that they are not as ‘good’ as those in higher sets. This ultimately leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy, which eventually causes the child to lose all interest. If the First Minister’s objective really is to raise standards then shouldn’t he be focussing on these low ability children and trying to raise their attainment levels? High ability groups also suffer because of the expectation that they are more capable than they actually there. To improve this it might be necessary to re-teach teachers on pupil differences and explain that all the children within the set are not identical. For this to occur they’d have to be a reduction in the emphasis placed on meeting targets, teachers need the flexibility to return to areas that children are finding difficult. When all said and done isn’t education for the benefit child? The First Minister’s recommendation needs to be accompanied by guidelines for teachers on how they can avoid the negative effects of homogeneous grouping. These guidelines should include careful planning, using well-defined targets and remaining aware of the negative effects of ability grouping (GB. Scottish Office. HMI, 1996. Cited in Sukhnandan and Lee, 1998. ) There could also be a move away from emphasis on academic achievement to more recognition of non-academic achievements to restore the self-esteem of children in lower ability groups (Elton Report, 1989. Taylor, 1993. Cited in Sukhnandan and Lee, 1998. ) His recommendation was probably the right one considering the drive to raise standards and make teachers lives easier. Because of the lack of conclusive evidence for what type of grouping is more beneficial academically for the child he was right to choose the method that could be most easily implemented and controlled. However this lack of conclusive evidence means that more research needs to be carried out to discover what the best form of grouping is. To do this researchers will have to establish what is ultimately best for the child, possibly new ways of grouping could be developed or the old ways upgraded.

Free Essays on Atmosphere

There are many environmental problems that are currently plaguing the earth. Many of them are caused by humans and some just occur naturally. Environmental pollution isn’t just an issue that has just been noticed now. Investigators in England during 1661 noticed that emissions coming from industrial plants were contributing to pollution. While working as a consultant for the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government, Michael E. Kowalok wrote the article â€Å"Common Threads† expressing the concern for the environmental problems that are happening in the world and some of the obstacles that stand in the way of improvement. Many of the problems that are currently hurting the environment are acid rain, stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming. As early as 1661, investigators realized that the waste product being released from smoke stacks in England were releasing harmful emissions that had the ability to change the environment. The main problem that they were concerned with was that it had the ability to travel long distances across Europe. The problem they were dealing with would later be known as acid rain. Britain’s first Alkali inspector Robert Angus Smith, noticed that the acidic rain made metals corrode and textiles to fade faster. In the book he wrote, â€Å"Air and Rain: The Beginnings of Chemical Climatology,† he explains the main principles that make up acid rain and the chemistry that makes it up. Scientists also 100 years later used the foundation of his research and went to Sweden to study different types of rain and noted that rain coming from the sea contained more salt and the rain coming from industrial areas contained more sulfuric acid. Connections were being made that ecosystems were bei ng polluted with acidic rain coming from industrial areas. Scientists were using data from other fields of research to help study their main areas a focus and research. Svante Oden is a soil scientists who ... Free Essays on Atmosphere Free Essays on Atmosphere There are many environmental problems that are currently plaguing the earth. Many of them are caused by humans and some just occur naturally. Environmental pollution isn’t just an issue that has just been noticed now. Investigators in England during 1661 noticed that emissions coming from industrial plants were contributing to pollution. While working as a consultant for the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government, Michael E. Kowalok wrote the article â€Å"Common Threads† expressing the concern for the environmental problems that are happening in the world and some of the obstacles that stand in the way of improvement. Many of the problems that are currently hurting the environment are acid rain, stratospheric ozone depletion and global warming. As early as 1661, investigators realized that the waste product being released from smoke stacks in England were releasing harmful emissions that had the ability to change the environment. The main problem that they were concerned with was that it had the ability to travel long distances across Europe. The problem they were dealing with would later be known as acid rain. Britain’s first Alkali inspector Robert Angus Smith, noticed that the acidic rain made metals corrode and textiles to fade faster. In the book he wrote, â€Å"Air and Rain: The Beginnings of Chemical Climatology,† he explains the main principles that make up acid rain and the chemistry that makes it up. Scientists also 100 years later used the foundation of his research and went to Sweden to study different types of rain and noted that rain coming from the sea contained more salt and the rain coming from industrial areas contained more sulfuric acid. Connections were being made that ecosystems were bei ng polluted with acidic rain coming from industrial areas. Scientists were using data from other fields of research to help study their main areas a focus and research. Svante Oden is a soil scientists who ...

I Have a Dream Speech, Martin Luther King Essays

I Have a Dream Speech, Martin Luther King Essays I Have a Dream Speech, Martin Luther King Essay I Have a Dream Speech, Martin Luther King Essay The historical narrative document â€Å"I have a Dream† is a political speech which was delivered by Martin Luther King on the 28th of August 1963 in the shadow of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington. The speech was aimed at the 250,000 Civil Rights supporters, both black and white, who had gathered for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, a key moment of the American Civil Rights Movement. One imagines that Martin Luther King hoped that his words would not only be heard that day in Washington, but that they would be carried across the rest of America too. Martin Luther King was born on the 15th of January, 1929. When he finished his studies in Sociology he went on to read Divinity Studies at Crozer Theological Seminary. He became a Baptist pastor in 1954 and from then on started to campaign for civil rights issues. In 1955 he was elected President of the Montgomery Improvement Association which staged a year long boycott by African Americans of Montgomery buses over segregation and inferior treatment of blacks. When the boycott ended on the 21st of December 1956, Martin Luther King and the M. I. A. had achieved desegregation of Montgomery buses; the leader had gained great prominence and became primarily a civil rights activist. He was a man with great promise and was viewed as an inspiration and leader by African Americans. In January 1957 the leaders of the Montgomery Bus Boycott founded the Southern Christian Leadersip Conference (SCLC), made up of churches and clergy from across the South. Martin Luther King was elected President as he had played a fundamental role in the Conference’s creation. As the bus boycott had achieved such success the SCLC’s objective was to organise non-violent protests to gain equality for blacks. The SCLC’s Birmingham campaign preceded the March on Washington, and King’s inspirational â€Å"I have a Dream† speech. Between 1957 and 1962 17 black churches and private homes were bombed in Birmingham. In 1963 the SCLC took on Birmingham as a major campaign, setting up headquarters and organising peaceful protests, demonstrations and sit-ins. On Good Friday, the 12th of April, Martin Luther King personally led an officially banned demonstration march; all the protestors were immediately arrested. When King’s wife had no news from her husband, she contacted the White House and President Kennedy became personally involved. King was kept in jail for 8 days, although he received preferential treatment due to the President. His involvement in Birmingham gave the campaign even more prominence, taking it nationwide and it led to Kennedy bringing in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Police actions and their treatment of the protestors sparked national outrage. The Birmingham campaign led to other protests across the country, culminating in the March on Washington. The rally was the group effort of several different civil rights organisations, all with different approaches and outlooks. The organisers were A. Phillip Randolph, Martin Luther King, James Farmer of CORE, Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, John Lewis of SNCC and Dorothy Height of the National Council of Negro Women. They were known as the â€Å"Big Six†. The objective of the March was to have important civil rights legislation passed on the following issues: racial desegregation in public schools; protection for demonstrators against police brutality; a public-works programme to provide employment; the prohibition of racial discrimination in public and private hiring; a minimum wage (2$ an hour); and the self-government of the District of Colombia, an area with a black majority. The Kennedy administration originally opposed the demonstration fearing riots would take place which would jeopardise the newly introduced Civil Rights legislation. When they realised the demonstration would go ahead anyway the White House became actively involved in the organisation, re-drafting speeches and inviting white organisations to attend in the hope that this would prevent any violence. The organisers estimated around 100,000 protestors would attend the March but on the day approximately 250,000 people turned out, around a quarter of whom were white. The major police presence was unnecessary in the end as it turned out to be a peaceful, non-violent protest. Even speakers included all of the â€Å"Big Six† civil rights leaders and Catholic, Protestant and Jewish religious leaders. The only female speaker was Josephine Baker. The most important and acclaimed speakers were John Lewis and Martin Luther King. â€Å"I have a dream† has gone down in history as one of the most important speeches in American oratory. King’s speech was dramatic, well-delivered and impassioned; millions of Americans watched the developments on television which helped the ideas and hopes of the Civil Rights Movement reach the whole country. The speech, an excellent example of rhetoric, was not delivered for the first time at the March on Washington. Other drafts or versions were given at various meetings and rallies, although the â€Å"I have a Dream† version was unique, delivered exclusively at the March. King actually deviated from his written speech towards the end, possibly prompted by the cries of Mahalia Jackson (a well known Gospel singer) of â€Å"Tell them about the dream, Martin†, thus prompting King in his anaphora of â€Å"I have a dream†, used 8 times in his discourse. Other examples of anaphora in the speech include â€Å"Now is the time† and â€Å"One hundred years later†. The language used is powerful, evocative and passionate; the message is strengthened with metaphors and imagery. Some example are â€Å"dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice†, â€Å"whirlwinds of revolt†, â€Å"whose governor’s lips are presently dripping with the words of interposition and nullification†, â€Å"jangling discords†. Martin Luther King’s background as a Baptist preacher was an important influence on his speech; indeed one feels like a member of his congregation listening to him giving an impassioned speech from the pulpit. There are many religious and Biblical references throughout the discourse; the first comes in the opening paragraph with â€Å"It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of captivity†, an allusion to Psalm 30:5. Further on King alludes to Amos 5:24 when he says â€Å"until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream†, and to Isaiah 40:40-5 with â€Å"every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain (†¦)†. There are also numerous allusions to â€Å"God†, â€Å"Lord†, â€Å"faith† and â€Å"God’s children†. I have a Dream† begins â€Å"Five score years ago†, an allusion to Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg address. Martin Luther King spoke from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, a location which was surely well-calculated given his opening line. The beginning of the speech is an impassioned criticism of racial inequal ity. King refers to the Emancipation Proclamation, an executive order issued by President Lincoln on the 1st of January 1863 during the American Civil War. It declared the emancipation of just over 3 million of the country’s 4 million African-American slaves who had belonged to white Americans. 0,000 of them were freed immediately, and nearly all were emancipated by July 1865. The first decade after the war, known as Reconstruction, was a positive period for the newly-freed slaves. Various Civil Rights Acts were passed, blacks gained independence and some economic stability. However, things changed in the 1870’s when Reconstruction ended and times became difficult for blacks. Unfavourable laws were passed, including voting qualifications, and in 1896 the Supreme Court declared legal â€Å"separate but equal† services and facilities for African-Americans which meant segregation, putting them at a great disadvantage. King also refers to two other historical American documents: the United States Constitution, with its abolition of slavery and prohibition of voting qualifications based on colour, race or previous status as a slave; and the Declaration of Independence which proclaimed â€Å"all men are created equal†. He argues that all 3 of the afore-mentioned documents failed completely where African Americans were concerned. However, he declares that he is hopeful that the situation will be remedied, calling for racial justice and equality for â€Å"all of God’s children†. Martin Luther King was a great believer in peaceful demonstrations. He did not approve of violence and encouraged his followers to fight for racial equality with peaceful methods: â€Å"In the process of gaining our rightful place we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds†. He urges them to ‘turn the other cheek’, even if they are wronged, and to show exemplary and dignified behaviour â€Å"on the high plane of dignity and discipline†. He also reminded them not to mistrust all white people, as many of them supported racial equality, which could be seen at the March itself as around a quarter of the emonstrators were white. King mentions the police brutality and racial violence suffered by many African-Americans and alludes to the fact that some of the demonstrators had just been released from jail, having been locked up for their participation in civil rights acts. As previously mentioned, King himself was arrested and jailed on several occasions for his part icipation in sit-ins and protests. The last part of the speech introduces the famous â€Å"I have a dream† anaphora, and is where King began to improvise. For many this is the most emotive part of the whole speech. It is an impassioned plea for freedom; for his children and all black people to be judged on their character and not on their colour or race; and for blacks and whites to become brothers. He refers to â€Å"My Country t’is of Thee†, a patriotic song also knows as â€Å"America†. It served as a de-facto national anthem until â€Å"The Star-Spangled Banner† became the official U. S. national anthem. His hope is that the words â€Å"let freedom ring† will one day be true for everyone. He uses these words as a plea, a cry in the last lines â€Å"Let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire (†¦)†, then cites other U. S. cities, from New York to Georgia. His final wish is that people of all colours, creeds and races will finally be able to say they are â€Å"Free at last! free at last! thank God Almighty, we are free at last! †. With the success of the March on Washington and Martin Luther King’s speech came the height of his fame. He was named Times magazine’s Man of the Year in January 1964; he met the Pope and he was invited to speak abroad. President Johnson invited King to the White House when he signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964, an Act greatly influenced by King’s role in Birmingham. The year ended on a high note when he received the Nobel Peace Prize on the 10th of December, 1964. King donated the 54,000$ prize money to the Civil Rights Movement. Shortly after collecting his prize, King and the SCLC focused on Selma, Alabama. Half of its 30,000 citizens were black yet only 350 were registered voters. The SCLC decided to launch a major vote-related campaign with months of hard campaigning, pre-banned marches and spouts of violence. The Ku Klux Klan murdered white Minister James Reeb in Selma, bringing the town to the attention of the rest of the U. S. Thousands of religious leaders demonstrated outside the White House, and soon after President Lyndon Johnson disclosed his Voting Rights Bill in a televised address. The SCLC’s Selma campaign led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, giving the government more power to control racial abuse at a local level of voting, and it prohibited tactics to prevent black voter registration. It was another huge success for Martin Luther King. After Selma, King changed focus and turned his attention to the North and West, with Chicago being chosen as the base for a Northern SCLC campaign. Having achieved everything that he could within legislation, King began to focus on economic issues as he realised that blacks needed help in job, housing and school-related matters. He also became increasingly vocal on the Vietnam War, attacking President Johnson’s policies, making him angry at King’s lack of loyalty. King received a lot of criticism from other civil rights leaders who felt he should be dedicating all of his time and energy to the African-American people and their needs instead of focusing on the Vietnam War. At the age of 39, Martin Luther King was assassinated on the balcony of a Memphis hotel room on the 4th of April 1968, 3 years after the success of â€Å"I have a Dream† and the March on Washington. He was in Memphis to support a strike by black sanitation workers, due to his increasing interest in economic matters. Immediately after his death riots broke out in cities all over the U. S. , with violence and arson becoming widespread. 3000 people were arrested and over 20,000 injured. Despite King’s death thousands of people came to Memphis to support the black sanitation workers’ strike, turning it into a great success. My opinion is that Martin Luther King’s determination and demand for racial equality in the U. S. was unprecedented and his role in prominent civil rights campaigns can certainly be viewed as pivotal in the change brought to U. S. legislation. He was the most inspirational civil rights leader America has ever known and his dignified, peaceful methods should be applauded. His achievements through the Civil Rights Movement and the SCLC, and his powerful â€Å"I have a Dream† speech made an important impact on America, bringing about the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, earning King a significant place in American history. Today, America has its first African-American President, Barack Obama, something Martin Luther King would surely be incredibly proud of if he were alive. I feel that King’s hard work as a civil rights campaigner put the wheels in motion to make such a feat possible.

Computer Sciences and Information Technology Essay

Computer Sciences and Information Technology - Essay Example On the other hand, web applications like Google Docs and its updates are always available to the users free of cost. However, web applications lack security which means for doing highly confidential work, application software is always better than web applications. Moreover, web based applications are shared by a number of users and therefore the system loading speeds at a particular moment may depend on the number of users at that moment. Web applications require internet connection and it is impossible to work on web applications while internet connection problems are there. On the other hand, normal software may not have such problems loading speed problems or internet connection problems. I recommend normal software to my company since normal software provides more flexibility to the users and it is difficult for a company to rely fully on web applications for executing its functions because of the safety, loading speed and internet related problems. 2. Mac vs. PC. Mac computers start always faster than PC’s and it opens the files faster than PC’s. Web pages also open faster in Mac computers than in PC’s. Mac computer make use of Motorola processors which are superior in performance than the Intel processors used in the PC’s. ... p publishing works, Mac computers are preferred worldwide because of its superior image handling abilities whereas PC’s are preferred because of its better software compatibility. In short, performance-wise and operational-wise, Mac computers are superior to PC’s even though it is slightly expensive. I would advise Universal Computing to purchase both Mac and PC’s based on the nature of works in each department. 3. Ethics in Action Privacy is a hotly debated topic in the world at present. There are many cases, in which the security agencies monitor the private communications between people. They are doing so for the national interests or for avoiding security threats. The threats from the terrorists are increasing day by day and all communication mediums including electronic media are used by the terrorists. Many of the countries like China, Pakistan, America etc are believed to be engaged in undeclared Cyber-attacks. It is impossible to counter cyber-attacks wit hout censoring the information passed through internet. Under such circumstances, nobody can blame the security agencies if they monitor private messages. Security is more important than privacy in my opinion. The loss of privacy of some people can save the lives of thousands of people and monitoring of communication channels can be ethically justified in that sense. 4. Should the government require that all Web sites meet the W3C accessibility guidelines? It is not necessary that all web sites meet the W3C accessibility guidelines. For example, it is difficult to implement W3C accessibility guidelines to Web sites hosted by disability organizations since these guidelines can cause more barriers in front of the disabled people in accessing web pages. Websites which are designed properly can be handled

Public International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Public International Law - Essay Example Yet the concept of intervention doesn’t take place in abstraction. It is interconnected with the ideals of national sovereignty, international relations and foreign policy, politics and the growth of the international community. These linkages are what inform philosophical thought and public opinion on the subject today2. Those arguing against intervention for human rights say they compromise basic features of state sovereignty since human rights are claims that states cannot do anything they want to however even among legal scholars, notions of sovereignty are coming under pressure to include understandings that would allow or even require intervention by outsiders in cases of humanitarian crisis and gross human rights abuse. Historical, Political and Philosophical Background The state is the fundamental ingredient for political self-determination, thus according to Michael Walzer intervention should be staged only when the basic purposes for which the state was formed have n ot been achieved. The legitimacy of states is limited to waging internal wars that go on without the acts shocking the conscience of mankind3. Of course there are scholars who think that Walzer’s ideas are far too liberal. The fact is that states monopolize defense and security matters within their territory4. The Soviet Republic murdered over 50 million of its citizens in cold blood, in Yugoslavia the numbers were over a million, in Darfur it was in the hundreds of thousands. This sobering statistics justify the assertion that it is the most dangerous threat to civilian existence today. Since the 2001 enactment of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) international law... The paper tells that the state is the fundamental ingredient for political self-determination, thus according to Michael Walzer intervention should be staged only when the basic purposes for which the state was formed have not been achieved. The legitimacy of states is limited to waging internal wars that go on without the acts shocking the conscience of mankind. Of course there are scholars who think that Walzer’s ideas are far too liberal. The fact is that states monopolize defense and security matters within their territory. The Soviet Republic murdered over 50 million of its citizens in cold blood, in Yugoslavia the numbers were over a million, in Darfur it was in the hundreds of thousands. This sobering statistics justify the assertion that it is the most dangerous threat to civilian existence today. Since the 2001 enactment of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) international law policy makers have been trying to develop doctrines of limited sovereignty that aims at givi ng the international community or specific international organizations leeway or duty to undertake intervention in cases of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing. The framework of humanitarian intervention isn’t clearly defined. This is amplified by the fact of intervention being not just a moral, but a legal issue as well. The mechanics of humanitarian intervention requires a political body to decide upon and authorize military action and the military force itself that carries out such action.